![]() File size and creation/modification date-The last two elements indicate the size of the file in bytes and the date the file was created or last modified.The group-The group of users allowed to access the file this is originally the file creator’s main group, but you can change this designation using the chgrp command.The owner-The account that owns the file this is originally the file creator, but you can change this designation using the chown command.Symbolic links of directories can also be created, but only the root operator can create a hard link of a directory. A hard-linked file is an exact copy of the file, but it might be located elsewhere on the system. Number of links to the file-The number 1 designates that there is only one file, whereas any other number indicates that there might be one or more hard-linked files.(You learn more about these permissions later in this section.) Permissions-Read, write, and execute permissions for the owner, group, and all others on the system.A blank (which is represented by a dash, as in the preceding example) designates a plain file, d designates a directory, c designates a character device (such as /dev/ttyS0), and b is used for a block device (such as /dev/sda). ![]() The type of file created-Common indicators of the type of file are in the leading letter in the output.The ls command then reports on the file, displaying the following (from left to right): In this example, the touch command is used to quickly create a file. You can examine the default permissions for a file you create by using the umask command, which lists default permissions using the number system explained next, or by using the touch command and then the ls command’s long-format listing like this: touch ls -l file ![]() These permissions are set individually for the file’s owner, for members of the group the file belongs to, and for all others on the system. ![]() These permissions provide data security by giving specific permission settings to every single item denoting who may read, write, or execute the file. And every file on your system has an accompanying set of permissions based on ownership. Under Linux (and UNIX), everything in the file system, including directories and devices, is a file. Ubuntu Unleashed 2013 Edition: Covering 12.10 and 13.04, 8th Edition ![]()
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